Which Of The Following Is A Known Consequence Of Excess Protein Intake In Animals Or Human Beings

Nutrient for the homo body

This article is about protein as nutrient. For protein as class of molecule, see Protein. For other uses, see Bodybuilding supplement.

Amino acids are the edifice blocks of protein.

Amino acids are necessary nutrients. Present in every cell, they are also precursors to nucleic acids, co-enzymes, hormones, immune response, repair and other molecules essential for life.

Proteins are essential nutrients for the human body.^[1] They are one of the building blocks of body tissue and tin also serve as a fuel source. As a fuel, proteins provide as much free energy density every bit carbohydrates: 4 kcal (17 kJ) per gram; in contrast, lipids provide 9 kcal (37 kJ) per gram. The most important aspect and defining characteristic of poly peptide from a nutritional standpoint is its amino acrid composition.^[2]

Proteins are polymer chains made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. During human digestion, proteins are broken down in the tummy to smaller polypeptide chains via hydrochloric acid and protease actions. This is crucial for the absorption of the essential amino acids that cannot exist biosynthesized by the body.^[iii]

At that place are nine essential amino acids which humans must obtain from their nutrition in society to prevent protein–energy malnutrition and resulting expiry. They are phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, and histidine.^{[two] [4]} There has been debate as to whether in that location are 8 or 9 essential amino acids.^[5] The consensus seems to lean towards 9 since histidine is not synthesized in adults.^[6] There are five amino acids which humans are able to synthesize in the trunk. These five are alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid and serine. At that place are six conditionally essential amino acids whose synthesis can be limited nether special pathophysiological conditions, such as prematurity in the infant or individuals in severe catabolic distress. These six are arginine, cysteine, glycine, glutamine, proline and tyrosine.^[2] Dietary sources of protein include meats, dairy products, fish, eggs, grains, legumes,^[7] nuts,^[eight] seeds,^[seven] Beans^[vii] and edible insects.

Poly peptide functions in homo trunk [edit]

Poly peptide is a nutrient needed by the homo body for growth and maintenance. Bated from water, proteins are the nearly abundant kind of molecules in the body. Poly peptide tin can exist institute in all cells of the trunk and is the major structural component of all cells in the body, especially muscle. This also includes torso organs, pilus and peel. Proteins are too used in membranes, such as glycoproteins. When broken down into amino acids, they are used equally precursors to nucleic acid, co-enzymes, hormones, allowed response, cellular repair, and other molecules essential for life. Additionally, protein is needed to form blood cells.^{[1] [2]}

Sources [edit]

Some sources of animal-based protein

Nutritional value and environmental impact of animal products, compared to agriculture overall^[9]

Categories	Contribution of farmed animal product [%]
Calories	18
Proteins	37
Land apply	83
Greenhouse gases	58
Water pollution	57
Air pollution	56
Freshwater withdrawals	33

Poly peptide occurs in a wide range of food.^{[ten] [11]} On a worldwide basis, plant protein foods contribute over threescore% of the per capita supply of poly peptide. In North America, animate being-derived foods contribute nigh 70% of protein sources.^[11] Insects are a source of protein in many parts of the world.^[12] In parts of Africa, up to l% of dietary poly peptide derives from insects.^[12] It is estimated that more than ii billion people eat insects daily.^[13]

Meat, dairy, eggs, soy, fish, whole grains, and cereals are sources of protein.^[ten] Examples of food staples and cereal sources of protein, each with a concentration greater than 7%, are (in no particular club) buckwheat, oats, rye, millet, maize (corn), rice, wheat, sorghum, amaranth, and quinoa.^[eleven] Some research highlights game meat every bit a protein source.^[14]

Vegan sources of proteins include legumes, nuts, seeds and fruits. Vegan foods with poly peptide concentrations greater than seven% include soybeans, lentils, kidney beans, white beans, mung beans, chickpeas, cowpeas, lima beans, pigeon peas, lupines, wing beans, almonds, Brazil nuts, cashews, pecans, walnuts, cotton wool seeds, pumpkin seeds, hemp seeds, sesame seeds, and sunflower seeds.^[11]

Photovoltaic-driven microbial protein production uses electricity from solar panels and carbon dioxide from the air to create fuel for microbes, which are grown in bioreactor vats and then processed into dry out protein powders. The process makes highly efficient apply of land, water and fertiliser.^{[15] [16]}

Found sources of poly peptide.

People eating a balanced nutrition do not need poly peptide supplements.^{[8] [11] [17]}

The tabular array below presents food groups as protein sources.

Nutrient source	Lysine	Threonine	Tryptophan	Sulfur-containing amino acids
Legumes	64	38	12	25
Cereals and whole grains	31	32	12	37
Nuts and seeds	45	36	17	46
Fruits	45	29	11	27
Animate being	85	44	12	38

Colour cardinal:

Protein source with highest density of respective amino acid.

Poly peptide source with lowest density of respective amino acid.

Protein powders – such as casein, whey, egg, rice, soy and cricket flour– are processed and manufactured sources of protein.^[18]

Testing in foods [edit]

The archetype assays for protein concentration in food are the Kjeldahl method and the Dumas method. These tests determine the full nitrogen in a sample. The simply major component of most food which contains nitrogen is protein (fatty, carbohydrate and dietary fiber do non contain nitrogen). If the corporeality of nitrogen is multiplied by a factor depending on the kinds of protein expected in the food the total protein can exist determined. This value is known as the "rough protein" content. On food labels the protein is given by the nitrogen multiplied by six.25, because the average nitrogen content of proteins is about 16%. The Kjeldahl examination is typically used because it is the method the AOAC International has adopted and is therefore used by many food standards agencies around the world, though the Dumas method is also canonical by some standards organizations.^[nineteen]

Accidental contamination and intentional adulteration of poly peptide meals with non-poly peptide nitrogen sources that inflate crude protein content measurements have been known to occur in the food industry for decades. To ensure food quality, purchasers of protein meals routinely carry quality control tests designed to discover the most common not-protein nitrogen contaminants, such every bit urea and ammonium nitrate.^[20]

In at least i segment of the food industry, the dairy industry, some countries (at to the lowest degree the U.S., Australia, France and Hungary) accept adopted "truthful protein" measurement, as opposed to crude poly peptide measurement, equally the standard for payment and testing: "True protein is a measure out of just the proteins in milk, whereas crude protein is a mensurate of all sources of nitrogen and includes nonprotein nitrogen, such every bit urea, which has no food value to humans. ... Electric current milk-testing equipment measures peptide bonds, a straight measure out of truthful protein."^[21] Measuring peptide bonds in grains has besides been put into practice in several countries including Canada, the UK, Commonwealth of australia, Russia and Argentine republic where near-infrared reflectance (NIR) engineering science, a type of infrared spectroscopy is used.^[22] The Nutrient and Agriculture Arrangement of the United Nations (FAO) recommends that only amino acid analysis be used to decide poly peptide in, inter alia, foods used equally the sole source of nourishment, such every bit infant formula, merely also provides: "When data on amino acids analyses are non available, determination of poly peptide based on total North content by Kjeldahl (AOAC, 2000) or similar method ... is considered acceptable."^[23]

The testing method for protein in beefiness cattle feed has grown into a scientific discipline over the post-war years. The standard text in the United States, Nutrient Requirements of Beefiness Cattle, has been through eight editions over at to the lowest degree 70 years.^[24] The 1996 6th edition substituted for the 5th edition's crude poly peptide the concept of "metabolizeable protein", which was defined around the year 2000 as "the truthful protein absorbed by the intestine, supplied past microbial poly peptide and undegraded intake poly peptide".^[25]

The limitations of the Kjeldahl method were at the eye of the Chinese poly peptide export contamination in 2007 and the 2008 China milk scandal in which the industrial chemical melamine was added to the milk or glutens to increase the measured "protein".^{[26] [27]}

Poly peptide quality [edit]

The most important attribute and defining characteristic of protein from a nutritional standpoint is its amino acid composition.^[2] There are multiple systems which rate proteins past their usefulness to an organism based on their relative percentage of amino acids and, in some systems, the digestibility of the poly peptide source. They include biological value, net poly peptide utilization, and PDCAAS (Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acids Score) which was adult by the FDA every bit a modification of the Protein efficiency ratio (PER) method. The PDCAAS rating was adopted by the U.s. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations/Earth Health System (FAO/WHO) in 1993 equally "the preferred 'best'" method to make up one's mind poly peptide quality. These organizations take suggested that other methods for evaluating the quality of protein are inferior.^[28] In 2013 FAO proposed irresolute to Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score.

Digestion [edit]

Most proteins are decomposed to single amino acids past digestion in the gastro-intestinal tract.^[29]

Digestion typically begins in the stomach when pepsinogen is converted to pepsin by the action of muriatic acid, and continued by trypsin and chymotrypsin in the small intestine.^[29] Before the absorption in the minor intestine, most proteins are already reduced to single amino acrid or peptides of several amino acids. Nigh peptides longer than four amino acids are not absorbed. Absorption into the abdominal absorbent cells is not the end. In that location, most of the peptides are broken into single amino acids.

Absorption of the amino acids and their derivatives into which dietary protein is degraded is done by the gastrointestinal tract. The absorption rates of individual amino acids are highly dependent on the protein source; for example, the digestibilities of many amino acids in humans, the difference betwixt soy and milk proteins^[30] and between individual milk proteins, beta-lactoglobulin and casein.^[31] For milk proteins, almost fifty% of the ingested poly peptide is absorbed between the tum and the jejunum and 90% is absorbed by the time the digested food reaches the ileum.^[32] Biological value (BV) is a mensurate of the proportion of absorbed protein from a food which becomes incorporated into the proteins of the organism's torso.

Newborn [edit]

Newborns of mammals are exceptional in protein digestion and assimilation in that they can absorb intact proteins at the modest intestine. This enables passive immunity, i.e., transfer of immunoglobulins from the mother to the newborn, via milk.^[33]

Dietary requirements [edit]

Considerable debate has taken identify regarding issues surrounding poly peptide intake requirements.^{[34] [35]} The amount of protein required in a person's nutrition is determined in big part by overall free energy intake, the torso's need for nitrogen and essential amino acids, torso weight and limerick, rate of growth in the individual, physical activeness level, the individual's energy and carbohydrate intake, and the presence of illness or injury.^{[3] [18]} Concrete activity and exertion every bit well as enhanced muscular mass increase the need for poly peptide. Requirements are as well greater during childhood for growth and development, during pregnancy, or when breastfeeding in order to nourish a baby or when the trunk needs to recover from malnutrition or trauma or after an functioning.^[36]

Dietary recommendations [edit]

According to US & Canadian Dietary Reference Intake guidelines, women aged 19–70 need to consume 46 grams of protein per twenty-four hours while men aged xix–seventy demand to consume 56 grams of poly peptide per twenty-four hour period to minimize take a chance of deficiency. These Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) were calculated based on 0.8 grams protein per kilogram body weight and boilerplate body weights of 57 kg (126 pounds) and 70 kg (154 pounds), respectively.^[2] Even so, this recommendation is based on structural requirements but disregards utilize of protein for free energy metabolism.^[34] This requirement is for a normal sedentary person.^[37] In the United States, average poly peptide consumption is college than the RDA. Co-ordinate to results of the National Wellness and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES 2013-2014), average protein consumption for women ages 20 and older was 69.8 grams and for men 98.three grams/day.^[38]

Active people [edit]

Several studies accept concluded that active people and athletes may require elevated protein intake (compared to 0.eight g/kg) due to increment in musculus mass and sweat losses, as well every bit need for torso repair and energy source.^{[34] [35]} Suggested amounts vary from 1.ii to 1.4 chiliad/kg for those doing endurance practice to as much as ane.6-1.viii g/kg for strength exercise,^{[35] [37]} while a proposed maximum daily protein intake would be approximately 25% of free energy requirements i.east. approximately 2 to 2.5 g/kg.^[34] However, many questions still remain to exist resolved.^[35]

In add-on, some have suggested that athletes using restricted-calorie diets for weight loss should further increase their protein consumption, possibly to ane.8–2.0 m/kg, in order to avoid loss of lean muscle mass.^[39]

Aerobic exercise protein needs [edit]

Endurance athletes differ from strength-building athletes in that endurance athletes practice not build as much muscle mass from training as force-building athletes exercise.^{[ citation needed ]} Research suggests that individuals performing endurance activity require more protein intake than sedentary individuals and then that muscles broken down during endurance workouts can exist repaired.^[40] Although the poly peptide requirement for athletes however remains controversial (for instance run across Lamont, Diet Enquiry Reviews, pages 142 - 149, 2012), enquiry does evidence that endurance athletes tin can benefit from increasing protein intake because the blazon of exercise endurance athletes participate in still alters the protein metabolism pathway. The overall protein requirement increases because of amino acid oxidation in endurance-trained athletes.^[40] Endurance athletes who exercise over a long menstruum (2–5 hours per training session) use protein equally a source of 5–10% of their total free energy expended. Therefore, a slight increment in poly peptide intake may exist beneficial to endurance athletes by replacing the poly peptide lost in free energy expenditure and protein lost in repairing muscles. 1 review concluded that endurance athletes may increase daily protein intake to a maximum of 1.ii–i.4 g per kg body weight.^[18]

Anaerobic practise protein needs [edit]

Research also indicates that individuals performing strength training activity require more protein than sedentary individuals. Strength-training athletes may increase their daily protein intake to a maximum of i.4–ane.8 yard per kg body weight to heighten musculus protein synthesis, or to brand up for the loss of amino acrid oxidation during exercise. Many athletes maintain a high-protein diet as part of their training. In fact, some athletes who specialize in anaerobic sports (e.g., weightlifting) believe a very high level of protein intake is necessary, and so consume high protein meals and besides protein supplements.^{[3] [18] [40] [41]}

Special populations [edit]

Protein allergies [edit]

A food allergy is an abnormal immune response to proteins in food. The signs and symptoms may range from mild to severe. They may include itchiness, swelling of the tongue, airsickness, diarrhea, hives, trouble breathing, or low blood pressure. These symptoms typically occurs within minutes to one hour afterwards exposure. When the symptoms are astringent, it is known every bit anaphylaxis. The post-obit eight foods are responsible for well-nigh ninety% of allergic reactions: cow's milk, eggs, wheat, shellfish, fish, peanuts, tree basics and soy.^[42]

Chronic kidney disease [edit]

While there is no conclusive evidence that a high protein diet tin cause chronic kidney affliction, there is a consensus that people with this disease should decrease consumption of protein. According to one 2009 review updated in 2018, people with chronic kidney disease who reduce protein consumption have less likelihood of progressing to end stage kidney disease.^{[43] [44]} Moreover, people with this disease while using a depression poly peptide diet (0.6 k/kg/d - 0.8 g/kg/d) may develop metabolic compensations that preserve kidney function, although in some people, malnutrition may occur.^[44]

Phenylketonuria [edit]

Individuals with phenylketonuria (PKU) must keep their intake of phenylalanine - an essential amino acid - extremely low to prevent a mental inability and other metabolic complications. Phenylalanine is a component of the bogus sweetener aspartame, so people with PKU need to avoid low calorie beverages and foods with this ingredient.^[45]

Excess consumption [edit]

The U.Southward. and Canadian Dietary Reference Intake review for protein ended that there was non sufficient testify to found a Tolerable upper intake level, i.east., an upper limit for how much poly peptide can be safely consumed.^[2]

When amino acids are in excess of needs, the liver takes up the amino acids and deaminates them, a process converting the nitrogen from the amino acids into ammonia, farther processed in the liver into urea via the urea cycle. Excretion of urea occurs via the kidneys. Other parts of the amino acrid molecules can exist converted into glucose and used for fuel.^{[37] [46] [47]} When nutrient protein intake is periodically high or low, the body tries to proceed protein levels at an equilibrium by using the "labile protein reserve" to recoup for daily variations in protein intake. However, dissimilar body fat as a reserve for time to come caloric needs, in that location is no protein storage for future needs.^[two]

Excessive poly peptide intake may increment calcium excretion in urine, occurring to compensate for the pH imbalance from oxidation of sulfur amino acids. This may pb to a college risk of kidney stone formation from calcium in the renal circulatory system.^[2] 1 meta-analysis reported no adverse effects of college poly peptide intakes on bone density.^[48] Another meta-analysis reported a small decrease in systolic and diastolic blood pressure with diets higher in protein, with no differences between animal and plant protein.^[49]

Loftier poly peptide diets have been shown to pb to an additional 1.21 kg of weight loss over a period of 3 months versus a baseline protein nutrition in a meta-analysis.^[50] Benefits of decreased body mass alphabetize also as HDL cholesterol were more than strongly observed in studies with only a slight increase in protein intake rather where high protein intake was classified every bit 45% of total free energy intake.^[l] Detrimental effects to cardiovascular activeness were not observed in brusk-term diets of vi months or less. In that location is petty consensus on the potentially detrimental furnishings to healthy individuals of a long-term high protein nutrition, leading to caution advisories about using high poly peptide intake as a form of weight loss.^{[50] [44] [51]}

The 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA) recommends that men and teenage boys increase their consumption of fruits, vegetables and other under-consumed foods, and that a means of accomplishing this would be to reduce overall intake of protein foods.^[52] The 2015 - 2020 DGA report does not set a recommended limit for the intake of red and processed meat. While the study acknowledges research showing that lower intake of red and processed meat is correlated with reduced take a chance of cardiovascular diseases in adults, it also notes the value of nutrients provided from these meats. The recommendation is not to limit intake of meats or protein, but rather to monitor and keep within daily limits the sodium (< 2300 mg), saturated fats (less than 10% of total calories per twenty-four hours), and added sugars (less than 10% of total calories per day) that may be increased as a upshot of consumption of certain meats and proteins. While the 2015 DGA report does advise for a reduced level of consumption of red and processed meats, the 2015-2020 DGA fundamental recommendations recommend that a variety of poly peptide foods exist consumed, including both vegetarian and non-vegetarian sources of protein.^[53]

Protein deficiency [edit]

Protein deficiency and malnutrition (PEM) can pb to diverseness of ailments including Intellectual inability and kwashiorkor.^[55] Symptoms of kwashiorkor include apathy, diarrhea, inactivity, failure to abound, flaky skin, fatty liver, and edema of the belly and legs. This edema is explained by the activeness of lipoxygenase on arachidonic acid to form leukotrienes and the normal functioning of proteins in fluid balance and lipoprotein transport.^[56]

PEM is fairly common worldwide in both children and adults and accounts for 6 million deaths annually. In the industrialized world, PEM is predominantly seen in hospitals, is associated with disease, or is ofttimes found in the elderly.^[2]

See also [edit]

• Azotorrhea
• Biological value
• Bodybuilding supplement
• Foliage protein concentrate
• Low-poly peptide nutrition
• Poly peptide bar
• Single-cell protein

References [edit]

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_%28nutrient%29

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